Adele Murphy
There are many definitions regarding religion and belief but there seems to be no solid definition. Instead, there is a debate between anthropologists and sociologists of the definition of religion. For example, Durkheim (2008) definition of religion describes “a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things” and “unite everyone into one single moral community”. Other sociologists such argue that Durkheim’s definition can’t help but be ethnocentric and viewed through western eyes.
Yinger (1970), a functionalist describes religion as “a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group struggles with the ultimate problems of human life”, he speaks of the relationship human have with death and mortality, such as discovering meaning to life through religion. Yinger (1970) and Durkheim’s definition both suggest that religion is a social glue as it serves a positive function to society, through community, empowerment and integration.
Marx’s definition of religion focuses on how religion causes conflict within society. Marx (2002) states that the struggles society faces are directly the struggles against religion. Marx debated that religion is used by the upper class to control the lower classes by using religious aspects. However, this definition and understanding of religion has been criticised as being reductionalist.
Many modern sociologists now understand that religion is complicated and impossible to define without being it is restrictive within their definitions. Sociologists understand that broad definitions are needed, due to past definitions being too general, vague, ethnocentric or reductionist. Religion has a plurality of meanings as it means something different to each individual and culture.
Looking at religion as a social concept, Sociologists have been able to develop a deeper and more concise understanding towards the purpose and relevance of religion to society. Comparing classical and contemporary sociological theories, knowledge can be gained to understand the dynamics of religion within society, and whether it serves as a social conflict or a social glue.
In 2019, The Satanic Temple was declared a religion by the US government. The Satanic temple is a branch of Satanism. Satanism has always been a controversial subject, especially in countries that have a high percentage of Christianity. The Satanic Temple do not believe in Satan, they are a non-theistic religion, but they use biblical satanic imagery to emphasise their belief system and use extremes to be heard by others, especially religious organisations.
Within the Satanic Temple, Baphomet is a sacred symbol of satanism. Baphomet symbolises the voice of reason and “embodies and celebrates contrast with society” (The Satanic Temple, 2022). “As above, so below” is an important motto within The Satanic Temple as it focuses on science and “perfect harmony of mercy and justice” (The Satanic Temple, 2022). An example of this would be having a satanic monument opposite a Christian one, celebrating difference, rather than creating conflict.
The concern around Satanism in the 1980’s stemmed from growing number of world rejecting movements that has caused serious harm, such as The Manson Family and Jim Jones that had caused a number of tragic deaths such as pregnant actor, Sharon Tate and the murder of over 900 people in the Jonestown massacre. Allport (1950) spoke about the perceived existence of movements affects individuals’ decision making as there is an applied presence of what the public would perceive as a threat. Therefore, whether Satanic cults existed or not, the actions of the public and individuals will be the same as they believe the threat to be real, creating negative experiences and causing social conflict throughout the 1980s. Due to rise of Christian Fundamentalism in the US, Satanism began to be seen a bigger threat due to the belief from Fundamentalists that Satan is the personification of evil that is found in all human societies. They believe that Satan is an active and even aggressive force. Kropneid (1990) contested that Satanism is an attractive “belief system” which can “cloak” and justify criminal behaviour. Tucker (1990) proclaimed that satanism is a serious problem.
In the 1980’s, The Satanic Panic swept throughout the United States, and then spread to other countries such as the UK, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Cohen’s (1972) theory of moral panics and folk devils was influenced by Becker’s (2018) theory of labelling. Cohen coined the term moral panic and described it as when “a condition, episode, person of groups of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and interests. Cohen (1972) pointed out that moral panics and folk devils are born from real issues that exist, the claims become exaggerated by the media, law enforcement, politicians and then ultimately, the public. For example, self-proclaimed satanists such as Richard Rameriz and Son of Sam, both serial killers, committed some extremely violent crimes. This became an issue for Satanic organisations as they did not represent their beliefs. Pfeifer (1990) made a point that the high-profile attention by the media magnified the problem in the eyes of the public for atheistic satanism, causing a common misinterpretation that caused social conflict.
Lippert (1989) spoke about the construction of satanism as a social problem, specifically in Canada. Lippert found that parents and the media blamed deaths, drug use and other serious crimes on satanic cults, rather than other factors in society that may have been causing social conflict such as mental illness and poverty. Lippert coined the term ‘claim makers’ to refer to the media and others that were creating an imagined community of satanists. These people made claims such as “satanists wear hoods in secluded graveyards” and blamed satanists for missing children and committing extremely violent crimes when there was no evidence to ever suggest that. Claim makers such as the media and “experts” fed into the moral panic surrounding satanism. Bourget et al. (1988) acknowledged that the media and the police especially exaggerated claims of individuals practising satanism as well as blaming said individuals of crimes that they had no evidence or reason to accuse people of. Foucault (1999) refuted that religious discourse is framed through the process of power and knowledge, this supports the beliefs and understanding of The Satanic Temple. Bellah (2009) discussed Civil Religion. Civil Religion is defined as any belief system that doesn’t rely on the existence of God, or gods. Regardless of this, it still incurs a passionate and intense response with a high commitment from followers. An example of this is Nationalism of the United States of America. All Americans are expected to take part in Civil Religion, if an individual refuses or unknowingly rejects the US, they are seen as a threat. The Satanic Temple believes in freedom and the right not to participate in activities that are viewed as American. Satanism is seen as a threat to the US due to the high population of Christians within the population. Atheism is the symbol of the rejection of a cultural membership of US society (Edgell, 2006).
Religion can be seen as a Social Conflict in the eyes of Satanism and share a lot of common themes with Marxism. Marx focused on the conflict he perceived through religion and looked at many different factors of what he considered negative about society. Marx (2002) expressed that ‘religion is an expression of material realities and economic injustice’. Marxism focuses on the notion that the problems within religion ultimately become the problems within society. The Satanic Temple acknowledges Marx’s works by recognising the suffering religion can cause and tricking society into “God’s Will” (2002). The Satanic Temple believe people are exploited by the elite by using religion to stop the majority from having any control of their conditions of labour, just as Karl Marx predicted.
Durkheim (1917) found that through religion, a group comes together and communicates, through this, a group becomes unified through collective emotional excitement. Using this argument, Satanism can be viewed as a social glue as The Satanic Temple bring people together as a community and fight against laws that they view as unequal or wrong, such as anti-abortion laws or anti-LGBTQIA+ laws. The Satanic Temple have a charitable organisation called The Good Works Campaign that focuses on raising money to victims of domestic violence and families affected (The Satanic Temple, 2022). The Satanic Temple can be viewed as a social glue due to their scripture to strive to be morally good such as “one should strive to act with compassion and empathy towards all creatures accordance to reason” (The Satanic Temple, 2022).
Introvigne (2016) began to look at the role of music within Satanism and found that Atheists use Satan as a figurehead of science and reason, they use Satanic imagery to push for the eradication of Christianity (social conflict). Bands such as Iron Maiden and Black Sabbath were targeted in the 1980’s for using Satanic imagery and became victims of the Satanic Panic. In 1995, Lowney researched a coven of Satanists and found that they did not actually believe in Satan but use Satanic imagery to challenge the dominant culture by focusing symbolic critique towards Christianity.
Tobias Forge, lead singer of Satanic metal band, Ghost, spoke of his experience of Satanism. “What [religion] has deemed as the devil throughout history are actually man’s own desires but they blame the devil and women for it” (2013). Feminism in Satanism is very important as it follows the scripture of equal rights and providing safe spaces for women and minorities (The Satanic Temple, 2022). Ghost uses Satanic imagery to mock Christianity and a way to address politics and the conflict society endures because of religion, which they see as he upper classes way to control everyone else (2021).
Demerath (2001) points out that there has been a recent growth in church-state tensions in the US. Issues of state intervention in the affairs of religious groups, and an increasing tendency among some religious groups, to put forward claims in the public sphere have caused controversy (Robbin, 1989). All presidents have been Christian and have mentioned God in their inauguration speeches, US is built on Christian values, Senators base their laws on religious opinion such as abortion, LGBTQ+ and laws surrounding women’s bodies. Lucien Greaves (2019), the leader of the satanic temple argues that the real evil was the witch hunts during the satanic panic and now, not the satanists.
Witchcraft and Satanism have always been closely linked to each other, especially though the eyes of Christianity. There are many differences between the two, but both have been negatively viewed by the masses for centuries. Until recently, witchcraft has been viewed as evil and sacrilegious. It wasn’t until the 1950’s, with the rise of Wicca, a branch of Witchcraft, that the practice became more mainstream and accepted in western cultures. In the Global South, there is still an extreme superstition about of negativity and hate surrounding the craft.
Demerath (2001) believed that sometimes religion can function as a trigger and a cause for conflict and violence. Demerath also refuted that religion has the tale of surrogate and constructs a mask of political, social, economic, or ethical conflicts. Millbank and Vogl (2018) defined witchcraft as an umbrella term for beliefs and practices concerning supernatural powers and objects, they vary across communities and regions. Witchcraft and sorcery form an important part of everyday life in a lot of countries around the world, which influences how people understand the world and their place within in it, just like major religions such as Christianity, Islam and Judaism.
In many African countries, Witchcraft can be seen to cause social conflict. For example, in some countries, UNICEF (2012) have identified and highlighted violence and abuse predominantly towards children. Witchcraft is cultural understood as evil and a way to cause harm to individuals and society (Riedel, 2012). Children are objectified and this leads to accusations of witchcraft. Through these accusations of Witchcraft, children are punished intensely such as torture (extreme exorcisms) and even death. Although children are predominantly victims of Witch Related Violence, the elderly, women and albinos are often ostracised too. Instead of understanding the societal issues from an educational perspective, many people believe that witchcraft is the reason for any misfortune. Kgatla (2018) argues that accusations of witchcraft are based on social control, specifically patriarchal control, that could be argued why there is a higher percentage of women accused of witchcraft than men. By using scare tactics and superstition to remain in control of women and their bodies.
It can be correlated that capitalism benefits from religion.
Witchcraft and new age religions have become more popular, businesses have begun to appeal to the masses by selling what Durkheim (1917) would consider sacred objects for profit. This can cause social conflict as closed practices are being exploited leading to racism, neo-colonialism, for example, white women stealing culture from the east such as religious practices from Hinduism and Buddhism, also known as Easternisation (Griffin, 1995).
Within Christianity and Judaism, women are viewed as subordinate, organised religion is heavily patriarchal. Hinduism although they worship female goddess, women can’t reach spiritual freedom the way upper caste men can. Buddhism, there is an anti-women sect. (Ozorak, 1996).
Durkheim (1915) spoke about Animism. Animism is the belief that all animals and plants have a soul, leading to new age religions and witchcraft caring more for the earth and the animals and people within it. Berger and Ezzy (2010) found that witches are highly spiritual and intelligent despite the stereotype that witchcraft is for childish and immature people, such as the stereotype of making love potions. It was found also found by Berger and Ezzy (2010) that people find comfort and solace practising witchcraft and spirituality. It was found that young people say it helps them cope with everyday issues such as mental health, bereavement, illness and sexual identity.
Women are beginning to look towards matriarchal religions such as wicca and other spiritual movements. Within these new age religions, women are seen to be equal to men and goddess worship is an important factor (Rountree, 2004). Deriving ancient symbols to explore female strength and femininity. Crowley (2004) found that new age religions focus on the freedom on mind, soul and body. The female body is celebrated, whereas other religions view women as temptresses. In New Age Religions, women’s bodies are celebrated and bringers of life. Ecofeminism feminism is a branch of feminism that looks at the intricate connection between the experiences of women and the treatment of nature. D’Eaubonne (1974) linked the relationship between women and nature and suggested that both were exploited and oppressed by a patriarchal system. Ecofeminists such as Beauvoir (1976) and El Saadawi (1997) clarified that women do not benefit from capitalism but have suffered greatly. Starhawk (1989) explored ecofeminism in greater detail and found that the movement was heavily influenced by spirituality and the connection between women and the natural world. Qualities such as nurturing, that are sometimes considered feminine should be encouraged and not repressed. Many new age religions are matriarchal and encourage femininity and the exploration of nature and spirituality. Witchcraft and New Age Religions challenges patriarchy through activism and trying to end the harmful associations between women and nature.
To take into consideration arguments from both sides, it seems that religion sits on the intersection of social conflict and a social glue. Looking at classical sociological theories, it has been debated for centuries whether religion is a social conflict or social glue. For example, Durkheim argued that religion is a social glue, conversely, Marx warranted it a social conflict.
By looking at Satanism, New Age Religions and Witchcraft, it can be concluded that all of these subjects cause social conflict and social glue. Satanism has been notorious for causing social conflict, they do this on purpose by being controversial and creating a counterculture against religion, especially towards Christianity. In comparison, Satanism has always shown itself to be a social glue, fighting for equality and true religious freedom, thinking about society as a whole, and coming together as a community to raise funds for a number of different charities. New Age Religions has been viewed as a social conflict due to easternisation and religion becoming a commodity for profit by businesses. Be that as it may, New Age Religions can be seen as a social glue as they provide women and minorities such as members of the LGBTQ+ community.
Witchcraft has always been viewed as a cause for social conflict throughout history and currently in some African countries. Through false accusations and children being tortured and murdered, society can be extremely superstitious and social conflict is created by ostracising vulnerable people such as women, children and the elderly. In contrast, Witchcraft has created a social glue for many in western countries, helping them with everyday life such as mental health, bereavement and sexual identity. Overall, Religion causes a lot of social conflict, but also creates social glue that binds societies and cultures together.
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